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rly progenitor seeds may be black holes of tens or perhaps hundreds of M? that are left behind by the explosions of massive stars and grow by accretion of matter. Another model involves a dense stellar cluster undergoing core collapse as the negative heat capacity of the system drives the velocity dispersion in the core to relativistic speeds.

Before the first stars, large gas clouds could collapse into a "quasi-star", which would in turn collapse into a black hole of around 20 M?. These stars may have also been formed by dark matter halos drawing in enormous amounts of gas by gravity, which would then produce supermassive stars with tens of thousands of solar masses. The "quasi-star" becomes unstable to radial perturbations because of electron-positron pair production in its core and could collapse directly into a black hole without a supernova explosion (which would eject most of its mass, preventing the black hole from growing as fast).

A more recent theory proposes that SMBH seeds were formed in the very early universe each from the collapse of a supermassive star with mass of around 100,000 M?.

Direct-collapse and primordial black holes
Large, high-redshift clouds of metal-free gas, when irradiated by a sufficiently intense flux of Lyman–Werner photons, can avoid cooling and fragmenting, thus collapsing as a single object due to self-gravitation. The core of the collapsing object reaches extremely large values of the matter density, of the order of about 107 g/cm3, and triggers a general relativistic instability. Thus, the object collapses directly into a black hole, without passing from the intermediate phase of a star, or of a quasi-star. These objects have a typical mass of about 100,000 M? and are named direct collapse black holes. A 2022 computer simulation showed that the first supermassive black holes can arise in rare turbulent clumps of gas, called primordial halos, that were fed by unusually strong streams of cold gas. The key simulation result was that cold flows suppressed star formation in the turbulent halo until the halo’s gravity was finally able to overcome the turbulence and formed two direct-c
 ollapse black holes of 31,000 M? and 40,000 M?. The birth of the first SMBHs can therefore be a result of standard cosmological structure formation — contrary to what had been thought for almost two decades.


Artist's impression of the huge outflow ejected from the quasar SDSS J1106+1939

Artist's illustration of galaxy with jets from a supermassive black hole.
Finally, primordial black holes (PBHs) could have been produ